Investigating the potential of Vietnamese tea seed oil (Camellia sinensis O.Kuntze) for the enhancement of oxidative stability in vegetable oils
ISSN 2588-1299
VJAS 2021; 4(1): 955-964
Vietnam Journal
of Agricultural
Sciences
Investigating the Potential of Vietnamese
Tea Seed Oil (Camellia sinensis O.Kuntze)
for the Enhancement of Oxidative Stability in
Vegetable Oils
Phan Thi Phuong Thao1,2, Tran Thi Thu Hang2, Pham Le Nguyet
Anh3 & Vu Hong Son1
1School of Food Biotechnology, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi
112012, Vietnam
2Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Vietnam National University of Agriculture,
Hanoi, 131000, Vietnam
3Faculty of Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of different antioxidative
compounds, namely 0.2% BHA (Butylated hydroxyanisole) + BHT
(butylated hydroxytoluene), 0.03% α – tocopherol, and 3% and 6%
tea seed oil (TSO) on the oxidative stability of vegetable oils. Four
commonly used oils, viz. rapeseed oil (RSO), peanut oil (PNO),
sunflower oil (SFO), and soybean oil (SBO), were assessed by the
Schall Oven test method and monitored during the 12-day
preservation period under 60°C. The total oxidation values
(TOTOX) of the samples treated with 6% TSO were lower than those
treated with 0.2% BHA+BHT. The results indicated the potential of
TSO as a novel natural antioxidant for dietary vegetable oils. Our
study also suggested that TSO could serve as an effective substitution
for currently used synthetic antioxidants such as BHA and BHT.
Keywords
Tea seed oil, oxidative stability, oil preservation
Introduction
Oxidative stability during processing, storage, and cooking are
some of the key determinants of the quality and shelf life of edible
vegetable oils (Choe & Min, 2006). Oxidation not only results in oil
deterioration and production of off-flavor compounds but also
negatively affects the nutritional values of dietary oils by breaking
down essential fatty acids. Moreover, oxidation leads to the
accumulation of toxic compounds that induce several health
problems in humans including cancer, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular
diseases, and allergies. Therefore, much effort has been made to
inhibit oil oxidation during storage at low temperatures and cooking
Received: March 6, 2020
Accepted: February 27, 2021
Correspondence to
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
955
Investigating the potential of Vietnamese tea seed oil for the enhancement of oxidative stability in vegetable oils
at high temperatures. Current solutions are the
inactivation of enzymes involved in oxidation,
the addition of metal chelators, modifications to
the packaging, and the addition of antioxidants.
promoting and essential unsaturated fatty acids
that cannot be synthesized by the human body
(Orsavova et al., 2015). The health benefits of
these oils are dependent on their fatty acid
profiles and plant sources. SFO contains a high
number of polyunsaturated fatty acids and a
smaller number of monounsaturated fatty acids,
together with a wide variety of natural
antioxidants including α – tocopherol and the
vitamins A, D, and E that can suppress oil
oxidation (Choi et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2017).
RSO is characterized by a similar fatty acid
composition to that of SFO and a significant level
of phenolic compounds such as α-tocopherol
(Jahreis & Schäfer, 2011). PNO contains adverse
fatty acid proportions, with a higher content of
monounsaturated oleic acid than polyunsaturated
linoleic acid, and the additional content of
longer-chain fatty acids including arachidic
(C20:0), behenic (C22:0), and lignoceric acid
(C24:0) (Dean et al., 2011; Davis et al., 2016). In
addition, polyunsaturated, saturated, and
monounsaturated fatty acids required in human
diets are also found in SBO in good proportions
(de Almeida Chuffa et al., 2014). Although
unsaturated fatty acids bring out several benefits
for human hearts and bodies, their high levels
result in accelerated oxidative susceptibility in
vegetable oils, causing undesirable effects in the
taste, aroma, and color, as well as in the chemical
and nutrient values of the oils (Chen et al., 2014;
Roszkowska et al., 2015; Maszewska et al.,
2018; Redondo-Cuevas et al., 2018). Therefore,
the addition of the appropriate type and quantity
of antioxidants to these vegetable oils is crucial
to improving their shelf-life and overall quality.
Synthetic compounds including butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluen
(BHT), tert-butylhydroxyquinone (TBHQ), and
propyl gallate (PG) are widely used antioxidants
during oil processing (Merrill et al., 2008). These
substances suppress oxidation in oils by
scavenging free radicals and converting them
into a more stable form (Choe & Min, 2009). The
amount of supplemented BHA and BHT is
dependent on the lipid contents of the food
products but should not exceed the suggested
amount of 200 ppm (TCVN 7597:2013). A high
dose of these phenolic compounds has been
associated with health problems such as lung
damage (BHT) or tumor development in the
stomach (BHA) (Ito et al., 1985; Botterweck et
al., 2000). Therefore, attempts have been made
to exploit natural antioxidants in the replacement
of synthetic compounds such as BHA and BHT
to improve the shelf-life of vegetable oils.
Several natural antioxidants, including ascorbyl
palmitate (AP), tocopherol, catechin, and
rosemary extract, etc., have been under
investigation (Chu & Hsu, 1999; Yanishlieva &
Marinova, 2001). Among these, tea seed oil
(TSO) is a potential compound with an
antioxidant activity that is as strong as or even
stronger than that of BHT and vitamin E,
respectively, at the same concentrations (Sahari
et al., 2004). It was previously shown that the
stability of TSO was the result of its low levels
of polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic
and linoleic acids, and its antioxidant capacity
relied on its phenolic compounds, especially
EGCG, α – toccopherol, and tocotrienols (Sahari
et al., 2004; Rajaei et al., 2008; Fazel et al., 2008;
2009).
Materials and Methods
Materials
Pure soybean oil, rapeseed oil, peanut oil,
and sunflower oil that were free of preservatives
or additives were acquired from Cai Lan
Vegetable Oil Company located at 649 Kim Ma,
Ngoc Khanh, Ba Dinh, Hanoi.
According to a survey of Statista Research,
the global consumptions of soybean oil (SBO),
rapeseed oil (RSO), sunflower oil (SFO), and
peanut oil (PNO) from 2013/2014 to 2019/2020
were 56.84 million tons, 27.77 million tons,
19.06 million tons, and 5.88 million tons,
respectively (Shahbandeh, 2019). These widely
consumed vegetable oils are sources of health-
The antioxidants BHA and BHT were
purchased from Sigma, Belgium; α–tocopherol
was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, USA; and
tea seed oil (Camellia sinensis O. Kuntze) was
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
956
Phan Thi Phuong Thao et al. (2021)
obtained from tea seeds harvested from mature
tea plants of the “Trungdu” tea variety in Phu
Tho province, Vietnam in December 2017.
values were determined according to TCVN
6121:2013. Approximately 0.5g of each test
sample was dissolved in 10mL of an acetic
acid:chloroform solution (2:1, v:v), 0.5mL of
freshly prepared saturated KI solution, and
15mL of water. The mixture was titrated with
a 0.01 N sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
solution, with the starch solution being the
indicator. The oil sample was replaced with 1
ml of water in the blank. The peroxide values
(PV) (Meq kg-1) were calculated using the
equation:
The chemicals used in this experiment
included acetic acid, chloroform, saturated KI,
sodium thiosulfate 0.01 N, p-anisidine,
isooctane, and starch.
The equipment used in this experiment
included a thermometer, ultrasound machine,
freezer (-80°C), JSSD microbiological cabinet,
analytical scale Practum 224-1S (Germany),
technical
scale
Ohaus
(USA),
and
)
PV = (
푉 – 푉 × 푓 × 푁 × 1000
0
spectrophotometer UV-Vis Shimazu (Japan).
푚
where:
Methods
PV: peroxide value (g 100 g-1);
Sample preparation and oxidation
conditions
m: mass of the oil sample (g);
V: volume of the Na2S2O3 standard solution
used in the test (mL);
The extraction process of tea seed oil is
illustrated in Figure 1. Four vegetable oil
samples were supplemented with different
antioxidants and labeled as DTV.1, DTV.2,
DTV.3, and DTV.4 as indicated in Table 1. A
negative control (DTV) with no additional
antioxidant was prepared for each tested oil. The
samples were then transferred to 15-mL falcon
tubes and stored at 60˚C. Evaluations of both the
negative control and tested samples were carried
out on day 12 after the antioxidant
supplementation. The analyzed parameters were
peroxide, para-anisidine, and total oxidation
(TOTOX) values.
V0: volume of the Na2S2O3 standard solution
used in the blank (mL);
N: concentration of Na2S2O3 (mol L-1); and
f : concentration correction factor.
Analysis of para-anisidine value: The
analyses were in accordance with TCVN 9670:
2013. The para-anisidine was weighed at 250mg
and dissolved in acetic acid in a 50-mL
volumetric flask. Five milliliters of the sample
solvent consisting of 0.2-0.3g of the tested oils
and 10mL isooctane was supplemented with 1 ml
of para-anisidine solution and left to react in the
dark (A1). One milliliter of the para-anisidine
mixed with 5mL isooctane instead of the sample
Analytical methods
Analysis of the peroxide value: The peroxide
Table 1. Experimental design
Formulas
Preservative proportions
Description
DTV
0%
0%
100g control vegetable oil
100g control vegetable oil
DTV.0
DTV.1
0.015% BHA
0.005% BHT
99.98g oil + 0.0015g BHA + 0.005g BHT
DTV.2
0.03%
99.97g oil + 0.03g α – tocopherol
α – tocopherol
DTV.3
DTV.4
3% TSO
6% TSO
97g oil + 3g TSO
97g oil + 3g TSO
Note: DTV represented four specific vegetable oils namely SBO, PNO, SFO, and RSO.
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Investigating the potential of Vietnamese tea seed oil for the enhancement of oxidative stability in vegetable oils
Figure 1. The extractive process of tea seed oil.
solvent was used as the blank (A2). An unreacted
sample (A0) containing 5mL of the sample
solution and 1mL acetic acid was prepared. After
exactly 10 minutes, the absorbances of the three
samples were determined at a wavelength of 350
nm. The para-anisidine values (P-Av) were
calculated using this equation:
100 푥 푄 푥 푉
( )
푥 1.2 푥 퐴1 − 퐴2 – 퐴0
P-Av =
푚
where:
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
958
Pham Thi Phuong Thao et al. (2021)
P-Av: para-anisidine value (no unit);
oils (DTV) had similar peroxide values before
the antioxidant supplementation (Figure 2).
Q: concentration of the sample used in the
test (g mL-1);
The peroxide values of the control
samples (no antioxidant added) and tested
samples (antioxidant added) showed no
significant differences on day 0 (P = 0.05).
Analyses on day 12 indicated that there were
significant increases in the hydroperoxide levels
in the pure vegetable oils (P = 0.05). Among the
pure oils tested, the highest and lowest peroxide
values were observed in pure SFO (91 Meq kg-1)
and SBO (41 Meq kg-1), respectively (Figure 2).
Our data also demonstrated that additional
antioxidants effectively suppressed oil oxidation,
hence resulting in lower peroxide values in the
enriched oils than those of the pure oils after
storage (Figure 2). The changes varied among
the different types of antioxidants and vegetable
oils tested. The peroxide values of the enriched
SFO experienced the most drastic changes
among those of the four vegetable oils. Among
these preservatives, the addition of 6% TSO
resulted in the highest reductions of peroxide
values of all the tested oils, which were by 55%
(PNO), 40% (SFO and RSO), and 25% (SBO).
The combination of the two common synthetic
antioxidants, BHA and BHA, had the least
impact on the peroxide values in these four edible
oils, except for SFO.
V: volume of the dissolved sample (mL);
m: mass of the oil sample (g);
1.2: correction factor for the dilution of the
sample solutions with 1mL para-anisidine
reagent;
A1: absorbance of the reacted solution at
350nm;
A2: absorbance of the blank at 350nm; and
A0: absorbance of the unreacted solution at
350nm.
Analysis of Totox: The total oxidation value
is the sum of the P-Av and twice the PV, and was
calculated as below:
Totox = P-Av + 2PV
where:
P-Av: para-anisidine value and
PV: peroxide value.
Statistical analysis method
All the results were presented as the mean of
triplicate measurements ± standard deviation.
When applicable, the data were subjected to one-
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the
Minitab statistical package version 16 at P< 0.05.
The least significant difference (LSD) test was
used in a mean separation where statistically
significant differences were recorded.
Effects of antioxidants on the para-anisidine
values after 12 days of storage
Unstable hydroperoxides decompose into
base radicals, resulting in the formation of
secondary products such as unsaturated
aldehydes, non-volatile aldehydes, ketones,
acids, esters, alcohol, and short-chain
hydrocarbons at high temperatures (Gordon,
2004). The concentration of these compounds
was determined by the para-anisidine value.
Figure 3 shows the changes in the P-Av of the
control oils and antioxidant supplemented
formulas.
Results
Effects of antioxidants on the peroxide
values of vegetable oils after 12 days of
storage
The peroxide value indicates the abundance
of the primary oxidation product, hydroperoxide
(Gordon, 2004). It has been widely used to
monitor the deterioration of oil products.
Therefore, we measured this value of the four
tested oils with and without the addition of
preservatives to evaluate the effectiveness of
additives in enhancing the oxidative stability of
the vegetable oils during storage. The four tested
Similar to the primary oxidation products,
the secondary oxidative compounds accumulated
abundantly after 12 days when the oils were not
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Investigating the potential of Vietnamese tea seed oil for the enhancement of oxidative stability in vegetable oils
PV (Meq/kg)
100
a
90
80
a
a
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
b
c
d
e
b
b
c
a
d
c
c
c
e
b
d
c
e
sample
Note: The letters a, b, c, d, e, and f present significant differences at the 5% level of formulas in the specific oils.
Figure 2. The peroxide values of four vegetable oils with and without antioxidants after 12 days of storage: DTV (DTV =
name of tested oils) columns represent the peroxide values for the pure tested oils before the addition of antioxidants (day 0).
The peroxide values of the oils supplemented with no antioxidant, BHA+BHT mixture, α-tocopherol, 3% TSO, and 6% TSO on
day 12 are marked as DTV. 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. SBO: Soybean oil, PNO: Peanut oil, SFO: Sunflower oil, and RSO:
Rapeseed oil.
boosted with preservatives (P = 0.05) (Figure 3).
The initial para-anisidine values varied among
the pure vegetable oils, with the lowest and
highest values observed in SBO (P-Av = 5) and
SFO (P-Av = 14), respectively. Without
additional preservatives, the hydroperoxide
decomposition was most significant in pure SFO
(P-Av = 38.5), followed by RSO (P-Av = 32),
PNO (P-Av = 31), and SBO (P-Av = 18). The
most drastic changes in the para-anisidine values
were observed in RSO supplemented with all the
tested antioxidants, BHA+BHT (37.5%
reduction), α-tocopherol (70% reduction), 3%
TSO (65.5% reduction), and 6% TSO (68.8%
reduction). TSO at a 6% concentration was the
most effective antioxidant in terms of
suppressing hydroperoxide decomposition in all
four analyzed oils excluding RSO, which
benefited slightly more from the addition of α-
tocopherol.
The total oxidation value of an oil is
determined by adding the peroxide and para-
anisidine values of the oil. It is an empirical
measurement of the total oxidation products, and
hence, indicates the overall oxidation state of oils
during storage and handling (Symoniuk et al.,
2017). After 12 days, pure SFO observed a nine-
fold increase in its TOTOX values, which was
the highest increase in TOTOX values, followed
by RSO (seven-fold), PNO (seven-fold), and
SBO (five-fold) (Figure 4). All the analyzed
additional antioxidants were shown to be
effective in suppressing the oxidation rate in
SFO. In agreement with the two previous
parameters, the TOTOX values saw the highest
reductions in all the vegetable oils boosted with
6% TSO. Supplementation with 6% TSO
resulted in the highest reductions in the
TOTOX values of SFO (58%), followed by
those of RSO (47%), SBO (40%), and PNO
(23.5%). In RSO, there was no significant
difference in the TOTOX value changes
resulting from the additions of α-tocopherol,
3% TSO, and 6% TSO.
The effects of antioxidants on the TOTOX
values after 12 days of storage
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
960
Pham Thi Phuong Thao et al. (2021)
p-aV
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
a
a
a
b
b
b
c
b
bc
c
d
a
d
b
c
c
d
e
d
e
0
sample
Note: The letters a, b, c, d, e, and f present significant differences at the 5% level of formulas in the specific oils.
Figure 3. The para-anisidine values of the four vegetable oils with and without antioxidants after 12 days of storage: SBO:
Soybean oil; PNO: Peanut oil; SFO: Sunflower oil; and RSO: Rapeseed oil
ions (Rice-Evans et al., 1996). Another type of
Discussion
food oxidation, type II photosensitized oxidation,
does not involve free radicals but requires non-
radical singlet oxygen that directly reacts with
unsaturated fats and oils (Choe & Min, 2005).
Singlet oxygen can be converted to its ground
state, triplet oxygen, by carotenoids and phenolic
compounds via energy transfer and charge
transfer, respectively (Choe & Min, 2009).
Due to the possible adverse effects of
synthetic preservatives, many plants with novel
sources of natural antioxidants have been
extensively studied. TSO has become a potential
candidate due to its high concentration of
phenolic
compounds
(α-tocopherol,
polyphenols) and carotenoids (Sahari et al.,
2004). The autoxidation of oils results in
increased free reactive radicals that can be
removed by α-tocopherol, polyphenols, and
carotenoids via hydrogen transfer (Choe & Min,
2005; 2009; Francenia Santos-Sánchez et al.,
2019). Oil oxidation is assisted by prooxidative
metals that minimize the activation energy of
oxidation and catalyze radical chain reactions
(Fereidoon & Ying, 2010). Phenolic compounds
such as flavonoids and phenolic acids act as
metal chelators that inhibit the activity of metal
Our study evaluated the effectiveness of
synthetic and natural antioxidants in improving
the oxidative stability of vegetable oils based on
three criteria: peroxide value (PV), para-
anisidine value (P-Av), and total oxidation
(TOTOX) value. Since PV measures the
concentration of the unstable hydroperoxide, it
does not accurately reflect the progress of
oxidation or the effectiveness of antioxidants
measures the concentration of the unstable
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Investigating the potential of Vietnamese tea seed oil for the enhancement of oxidative stability in vegetable oils
Totox
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
sample
Figure 4. The TOTOX values of the four vegetable oils with and without antioxidants after 12 days of storage: SBO: Soybean oil,
PNO: Peanut oil, SFO: Sunflower oil, and RSO: Rapeseed oil
hydroperoxide, it does not accurately reflect the
progress of oxidation or the effectiveness of
antioxidants (Gordon, 2004). Therefore, it must
be used in conjunction with additional
measurements such as P-Av, which measures the
level of secondary oxidation products, and
TOTOX, which indicates the total oxidation
product concentration. The results from our
study demonstrated that the inhibitory effect of
TSO on oil oxidation was as strong as that of the
synthetic compounds BHA and BHT. This
harmonized with previous studies that illustrated
the effectiveness of TSO in suppressing the
oxidation susceptibility of edible vegetable and
animal oils such as soybean and fish oils (Fazel
et al., 2008; 2009; Prabsangob & Benjakul,
2018). Our data also suggested that TSO at a
higher concentration (6%) was a more effective
antioxidant than TSO at a lower concentration
(3%). Moreover, we observed that the TSO-
induced oxidation suppression was more
prominent in oils with higher levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as SFO than in
those with lower levels of polyunsaturated fatty
acids such as SBO and PNO. Unsaturated fatty
acids provide several health benefits to the
human body such as reducing the risk of
inflammatory
conditions,
cardiovascular
diseases, and cancers of the colon, heart, and
prostate, and improving cognitive functions
(Lunn & Theobald, 2006). However, vegetable
oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids, especially
polyunsaturated ones with more double bonds,
are more prone to oxidative rancidity than
saturated fatty acid-rich oils, and hence, require
optimal processing to preserve their nutrient
contents while minimizing oil oxidative
susceptibility. TSO was shown to be a potential
preservative in these dietary oils. Future
research should focus on analyzing the effect of
TSO additions on the abundance of unsaturated
fatty acids and other essential nutrients in
vegetable oils.
Conclusions
The results from our study suggested that the
four tested vegetable oils enriched with 6% TSO
had comparable or higher oxidative stability than
those supplemented with synthetic preservatives
such as BHA and BHT. The addition of 6% TSO
reduced the TOTOX values of pure SFO, RSO,
SBO, and PNO by 58%, 47%, 40%, and 23.5%,
respectively. It also resulted in the most
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
962
Pham Thi Phuong Thao et al. (2021)
DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00082-X.
significant reductions in the peroxide and para-
anisidine values, although the changes varied
among the four analyzed vegetable oils. The
suppressing activity of other preservatives also
varied among the four tested oils. The unequal
effectiveness of the antioxidants may result from
the physiochemical constituents of the oils and
the interactions between additional and existing
natural antioxidants in the vegetable oils. Further
studies are required to unravel these complex
relationships and maximize the efficiency of
antioxidants during the preservation and usage of
edible oils. Furthermore, the identification and
quantification of possible anti-nutritional or toxic
compounds in TSO are crucial to determine the
usage and the appropriate dosage of TSO in
dietary oils.
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