Effects of nitrogen application on the growth and yield of quinoa under saline conditions in Northern Vietnam
ISSN 2588-1299
VJAS 2021; 4(1): 903-911
Vietnam Journal
of Agricultural
Sciences
Effects of Nitrogen Application on the
Growth and Yield of Quinoa under Saline
Conditions in Northern Vietnam
Dinh Thai Hoang1, Dang Thi Phuong Anh1, Luu Hue Nhan2 &
Nguyen Viet Long1
1Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National University of Agriculture , Hanoi 131000,
Vietnam
2Department of Production, Military Academy of Logistics, Hanoi 131000, Vietnam
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the optimum nitrogen application rate
for quinoa in saline soils. Two experiments were conducted: (i) the
first experiment was under artificial saline conditions with the two
factors of saline regime (stressed and non-stressed) and nitrogen
application level (0, 30, 60, 90 and 150 kg N ha-1) in net-houses
located in Gia Lam, Hanoi; and (ii) the second experiment was under
natural field saline conditions with the two factors of quinoa cultivar
(Atlas and Moradas) and nitrogen application level (0, 30, 60, 90, and
150 kg N ha-1) in the coastal areas of Hai Hau, Nam Dinh province.
Data were collected for growth duration, insect and disease
infestations during the growth period, and various growth parameters
and yield components at harvest. The results showed that saline stress
reduced the growth and yield parameters, but did not affect the quinoa
growth duration of the investigated quinoa cultivars. In both
experiments, the growth parameters and yield components increased
according to the increase of the nitrogen application rates from 0 to
90 kg N ha-1, then decreased when the nitrogen rates were higher. The
results suggested that 90 kg N ha-1 was the optimum nitrogen
application dose for quinoa growth and development under saline soil
conditions.
Keywords
Nitrogen, growth, quinoa, saline stress, yield
Introduction
Currently, over one million hectares of cultivated land in the
coastal cities in the two major rice and fruit tree areas, the Red River
Delta and the Mekong River Delta, in Vietnam are covered by saline
soil (Nguyen Van Dao & Ho Quang Duc, 2019). In these areas, the
production of traditional crops is under the effect of salt and drought
stress with low and unstable yield, and high input costs from
Received: September 6, 2020
Accepted: November 22, 2020
Correspondence to
903
Effects of nitrogen application on the growth and yield of quinoa under saline conditions in Northern Vietnam
replanting and using freshwater for desalting
(Nguyen Viet Long, 2016a). Under the adverse
impacts of climate change, crop production
under these conditions has become more severe
due to the increase of soil salinity and the scarcity
of freshwater used for irrigation and saline
drainage. One of the solutions to promote
agricultural production in these saline areas is
using salt-tolerant plants that can grow well with
little or without using freshwater as a desalting
strategy.
out to evaluate the effects of nitrogen application
on the growth and yield of quinoa to suggest the
optimum nitrogen dose for quinoa production in
saline conditions in Northern Vietnam.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted with two
experiments. The first experiment evaluated the
effects of salt stress and nitrogen application dose
on the growth and yield of quinoa in the 2017
winter cropping season in Gia Lam district,
Hanoi, Vietnam. The pot experiment was
conducted under net-house conditions at the
Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National
University of Agriculture. The two-factor
experiment was designed using a randomized
complete block design (RCBD) with five
replications. The first factor was the nitrogen
level at the five rates of 0, 30, 60, 90, and 150 kg
N ha-1. The second factor was the salinity level,
either non-stressed or moderately stressed. The
quinoa variety Atlas, introduced from the
Netherlands, was used in this experiment. A 2kg
mixture of Red River alluvial soil, rice husk ash,
and Song Gianh microbiological fertilizer at a
ratio of 8.5:1.0:0.5 by weight was used to fill the
plastic pots (14 x 12 x 20cm in height, lower-side
diameter, and upper-side diameter, respectively).
Then, twenty quinoa seeds were sown in each
pot. After germination, young seedlings (at the 3-
4 leaves stage) were thinned to keep 5 healthy
seedlings pot-1. The amount of fertilizer was
calculated and applied for each pot with a base of
500 kg lime + 60 kg P2O5 + 60 kg K2O ha-1 (Dinh
Thai Hoang et al., 2015). Whole lime and
phosphate amounts were well-mixed with the
soil as a basal application before sowing.
Nitrogen was applied at three distinctive time
points: the 5-7 full leaves stage, two weeks later,
and one month after the first application.
Potassium was applied two times at the flowering
stage and one week after the first application.
Fresh water was applied as needed to support
plant growth from sowing to harvest. For the
saline stress treatment, a NaCl solution (100mM)
was used to replace the freshwater for 15 days
from 30 to 45 days after planting.
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Wild) is a
highly adapted crop capable of growing under
stressful conditions. It is known as a "golden
food" that has many desirable features such as
being highly delicious, adequately nutritious,
safe, and environmentally friendly. Quinoa grain
contains sufficient amounts of essential amino
acids with rich energy and high-quality protein,
has high mineral and fiber contents and low fatty
oil content, and lacks gluten, which can cause
dangerous human diseases (FAO, 2011).
Therefore, it is considered a functional food that
helps prevent heart disease and improves bone
health (FAO, 2013).
In the Northern part of Vietnam, from 1986
to 2000, quinoa was grown using the HV1
variety, which has a grain yield of 14.0 to 20.6
quintal ha-1 (Trinh Ngoc Duc, 2001). Bertero et
al. (2004) pointed out that quinoa adapted well to
Vietnam’s conditions with a yield higher than
those in several native regions. Also, previous
studies introduced varieties that have the ability
to be cultivated in the saline areas in the Northern
provinces of Vietnam such as Moradas, Verde
(Nguyen Viet Long, 2016a), and Red (Nguyen
Viet Long, 2016b). Besides using better quinoa
varieties, quinoa production can be improved
through other strategies such as proper nitrogen
fertilizer application. Trinh Ngoc Duc (2001)
proposed a fertilizer procedure for quinoa with an
amount of 10 tons of manure + 60-80 kg N + 60-
80 kg P2O5 + 30-40 kg K2O ha-1. In Hanoi, under
non-stress conditions, Dinh Thai Hoang et al.
(2015) reported that at the optimum dose of 90
kg N ha-1, quinoa produced the highest growth
and yield. However, there is no study about the
nitrogen application for quinoa grown in saline
soils in Vietnam. The current study was carried
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Dinh Thai Hoang et al. (2021)
The second experiment evaluated the effects
of nitrogen application on the growth and yield
of quinoa under saline conditions in the 2018
spring cropping season in Hai Hau district, Nam
Dinh province, Vietnam. Two quinoa varieties,
Atlas and Moradas, introduced from the
Netherlands were used. The two-factor
experiment was designed using a randomized
complete block (RCBD) with three replications.
The first factor was the quinoa variety (Atlas and
Moradas), and the second factor was the nitrogen
application dose (same five doses as in the first
experiment). The experimental soil was a
moderate saline soil with the chemical properties
at the 0-40cm depth as 0.17% of total N, 7.65mg
100g-1 of exchangeable P2O5, 18.97 mg 100g-1 of
K2O, 2.08 mS cm-1 of EC, 1.25 of total dissolved
salts, and a pH of 7.3. The area of each
experimental plot was 15m2. The seeds were
sown with a distance of 60 x 15cm between the
rows and plants. Nitrogen was applied with a
base dose of 10 tones manure + 90kg P2O5 and
90kg K2O ha-1. Whole manure and phosphate,
and 1/3 the amount of potassium were applied as
the basal dose before sowing. At 35 days and 70
days after sowing, a half dose of nitrogen and 1/3
dose of potassium were applied.
Difference (LSD) at significant level of 5% was
used to compare means.
Results
Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application
on the growth duration of quinoa under net-
house conditions in the 2017 winter cropping
season in Gia Lam, Hanoi
The results for the effects of salt stress and
nitrogen application to the growth duration of the
quinoa variety Atlas are shown in Table 1. These
results indicate that there were no differences in
the time from sowing to emergence and
flowering, but the time from sowing to
harvesting of quinoa in the stress treatment was
longer (2.0 days) than that in the non-stress
treatment. Similar results were found in the
effects of the nitrogen application on the
emergence rate, and the time from sowing to
emergence, flowering, and harvest. Applying
nitrogen extended the total growth duration of
quinoa from 4.0 to 7.8 days compared to the 0 kg
N ha-1 treatment. However, no differences were
found between the low nitrogen applied
treatments (30 and 60 kg N ha-1) and between the
high nitrogen applied treatments (90 and 150 kg
N ha-1).
The target parameters collected included the
growth duration from sowing to emergence,
flowering, and harvest. At harvest, the data for
the growth parameters, including plant height,
plant diameter, number of leaves/main stem,
number of branches/plant, dry matter
accumulation, head panicle length, 1000-seed
weight, and individual yield, were collected. For
the field experiment, the actual yield at harvest,
the lodging resistance, and the infection rates of
black cutworm and clover worm were also
determined during the growth stages. The
methods to determine the target parameters
followed the descriptors for quinoa and its wild
relatives (Bioversity International, 2013).
Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application
on the growth of quinoa under net-house
conditions in the 2017 winter cropping season
in Gia Lam, Hanoi
The effects of salt stress and nitrogen
application dose on quinoa’s growth during the
2017 winter cropping season are illustrated in
Table 2. It shows that all the growth parameters
of quinoa including plant height, number of
leaves/main stem, number of branches/plants,
and plant diameter reduced significantly under
saline conditions. The results also indicated a
positive impact of nitrogen application on quinoa
growth. Across two salt levels, plant height,
number of leaves/main stem, number of
branches/plants, and plant diameter had upward
trends and reached the highest values when the
nitrogen dose increased from 0 to 90 kg N ha-1,
but then reduced when the nitrogen dose
increased up to 150 kg N ha-1.
The data were subjected to analyses of
variance (ANOVA) according to a randomized
complete block design for two-factor
experiments using IRRISTAT 5.0 program. The
sources of variation included variety/saline level,
N level, replication (block) and interaction
among the main variables. Least Significant
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Effects of nitrogen application on the growth and yield of quinoa under saline conditions in Northern Vietnam
Table 1. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on the emergence rate and growing duration of quinoa in the 2017 winter
cropping season in Gia Lam, Hanoi
Days from sowing to
Treatment
Emergence
Flowering
Harvest
Salt regimes
Non-stress
Stress
2.1a
2.1a
31.4a
31.7a
98.5b
100.5a
Nitrogen levels
0 N
2.2a
2.0a
2.2a
2.0a
2.0a
31.2b
31.5ab
31.5ab
95.2d
99.2c
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
99.5c
32.0a
31.7ab
100.8a
103.0a
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
Table 2. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on plant height, number of leaves on the main stem, number of branches on
the plant, and plant diameter of quinoa in the 2017 winter cropping season in Gia Lam, Hanoi
Plant height
(cm)
Number of leaves/
main stem (leaves)
Number of branches
(branches)
Plant diameter
(cm)
Treatment
Salt regimes
33.1a
Non-stress
72.9a
52.7b
11.7a
9.6b
0.87a
0.78b
Stress
31.5b
Nitrogen levels
30.6d
0 N
59.9d
61.7c
63.8b
65.3a
63.4b
10.1c
10.5b
10.8b
11.4a
10.6b
0.78d
0.81c
0.83b
0.86a
0.84b
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
31.7c
32.8b
33.6a
32.9b
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
difference in panicle length was not significant
among all the nitrogen treatments, whereas dry
matter accumulation did not increase
significantly when the nitrogen levels increased
from 60 to 90 kg N ha-1 (Table 3).
Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application
on the yield of quinoa under net-house
conditions in the 2017 winter cropping season
in Gia Lam, Hanoi
The results showed that dry matter
accumulation, panicle length, 1000-seed weight,
and individual yield reduced significantly under
saline conditions (Table 3). There was a positive
impact of nitrogen application on the
investigated parameters. Across the two salt
levels, the 1000-seed weight and individual yield
had upward trends and reached the highest values
when the nitrogen dose was increased from 0 to
90 kg N ha-1, but then reduced when the nitrogen
level further increased to 150 kg N ha-1. The
Effects of salt stress and applied nitrogen
doses on the growth duration of quinoa
varieties in the 2018 spring cropping season
under natural field salinity
As presented in Table 4, there was a
difference between the growing duration of the
two investigated varieties The average days from
sowing to emergence, to flowering, and to
harvesting in the 2018 spring cropping season
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906
Dinh Thai Hoang et al. (2021)
Table 3. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on dry matter accumulation, panicle length, 1000-seed weight, and
individual yield of quinoa in the 2017 winter cropping season in Gia Lam, Hanoi
Dry matter
accumulation
(g plant-1)
Panicle length
1000-seed weight
(g)
Individual yield
(g plant-1)
Treatment
(cm)
Salt regimes
11.5a
Non-stress
8.2a
6.1b
2.03a
1.67b
6.60a
4.74b
Stress
8.3b
Nitrogen levels
8.8a
0 N
6.7d
7.0c
1.70d
1.79c
1.88b
1.98a
1.91b
5.14d
5.48c
5.79b
6.09a
5.84b
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
9.4a
7.3ab
7.5a
7.2bc
10.2a
10.9a
10.4a
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
Table 4. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on the growth duration of quinoa varieties in the 2018 spring cropping
season in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
Days from sowing to
Treatment
Emergence
Flowering
Harvest
Varieties
Atlas
3.8a
3.3a
56.4a
54.5b
105.8a
91.8b
Moradas
Nitrogen levels
0 N
3.3a
3.7a
3.7a
3.5a
3.5a
54.3c
54.7c
54.7c
56.3b
57.2a
98.0b
98.0b
98.5b
99.5a
100.0a
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
Effects of salt stress and applied nitrogen
doses on the growth of quinoa varieties in the
2018 spring cropping season under natural
field salinity in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
were 3.3, 56.4, and 105.8 days, respectively, for
Atlas, and 3.3, 54.5, and 91.8 days, respectively,
for Moradas. The times to emergence, flowering,
and harvest of Moradas were earlier than those of
Atlas. The duration times of Atlas were longer
than those of Moradas, but significant
differences were found only in the times from
sowing to flowering and harvesting. The results
also indicated that the growth duration of both
quinoa varieties was extended, but just in the
treatments of high nitrogen application doses of
90 and 150 kg N ha-1. The times from sowing to
flowering and harvesting were similar when
nitrogen was applied at lower doses from 0 to 60
kg N ha-1.
The results showed that plant height, number
of leaves on the main stem, number of
branches/plants, and plant diameter of the quinoa
varieties were significantly different. Moradas
had greater values than Atlas in all the indicators
(Table 5). Applying nitrogen at different rates
induced differences in the growth parameters
across the two quinoa varieties. The values of
these parameters reached the highest at the
nitrogen application dose of 90 kg N ha-1 (Table
5), then reduced when the nitrogen level was
increased up to 150 kg N ha-1.
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Effects of nitrogen application on the growth and yield of quinoa under saline conditions in Northern Vietnam
Moradas had a higher head panicle length and
Effects of salt stress and applied nitrogen
doses on lodging resistance and insect
infection rates of quinoa in the 2018 spring
cropping season under natural field salinity in
Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
1000-seed weight, but lower individual seed
yield than Atlas did. The results of the study also
showed that different nitrogen application levels
led to differences in all the indicators. The values
of all the target indicators increased and reached
the highest when the nitrogen application dose
was increased to 90 kg N ha-1.
In the 2018 spring cropping season, no
diseases or the lodging phenomenon were
detected, and the severity for some major worms
including black cutworm and green clover worm
were at similar and moderate rates both in both
varieties (Table 6). The highest infection rate
with black cutworm was recorded at the
treatment of 150 kg N ha-1 and was significantly
higher than other treatments except for 90 kg N
ha-1. At the treatment of 60 kg N ha-1, the
infection rate with clover worm was higher than
all the other treatments.
Discussions
This study showed that salt concentrations
(100 mM NaCl) in irrigated water non-
significantly affected the seed emergence rate
and growth duration of quinoa (Table 1). The salt
stress reduced plant height, the number of leaves
on the main stem, the number of branches on the
plant, and the plant diameter (Table 2). The dry
matter accumulation, panicle length, number of
panicles on the plant, 1000-seed weight, and
individual yield also declined significantly under
the effects of saline conditions (Table 3). Under
artificial salt stress conditions for 14 days at the
flowering stage, Nguyen Viet Long (2016b) also
indicated that increasing the salt concentration
reduced the morphological traits and yield
components of quinoa varieties. Our results were
in agreement with the findings of Nguyen Viet
Long (2016a) about plant height, the number of
branches on the plant, the number of leaves on
Effects of salt stress and applied nitrogen
doses on the yield components of quinoa in the
2018 spring cropping season under natural
field salinity in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
The data in Table 7 show the influence of
nitrogen levels to the yield and yield components
of the quinoa varieties. The table illustrates that
there were no significant differences in the
number of panicles and actual yield between the
two varieties. In contrast, head panicle length,
1000-seed weight, and individual yield of the
quinoa varieties were significantly different.
Table 5. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on plant height, number of leaves on the main stem, number of branches on
the plant, and plant diameter of quinoa varieties in the 2018 spring cropping season in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
Leaves number/
Plant height
(cm)
Number of branches
(branches)
Plant diameter
(cm)
Treatment
main stem
(leaves)
Varieties
32.7b
Atlas
72.0b
82.1a
22.9b
24.7a
1.10b
1.15a
Moradas
35.5a
Nitrogen levels
31.6c
0 N
66.5e
71.8d
76.5c
86.9a
83.4b
20.7c
23.3b
23.7b
26.0a
25.4a
0.91d
1.06c
1.10c
1.31a
1.24b
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
31.9c
34.0b
37.3a
35.6b
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
908
Dinh Thai Hoang et al. (2021)
Table 6. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on the resistance to lodging and infection rate of black cutworm and clover
worm of quinoa varieties in the 2018 spring cropping season in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
Resistance to lodging
(1-5) *
Black cutworm
(1-5)**
Clover worm
(1-5)**
Treatment
Varieties
Atlas
1.0a
1.0a
2.4a
2.2a
2.6a
2.6a
Moradas
Nitrogen levels
0 N
1.0a
1.0a
1.0a
1.0a
1.0a
2.0c
2.2b
2.2b
2.5ab
2.7a
2.5bc
2.5bc
3.0a
2.3c
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
2.7b
Note: *1 - no lodging, 5 - heavy shedding; **1 - not infected, 5 - serious infection; means followed by the same lowercase letter in a
column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
Table 7. Effects of salt stress and nitrogen application on the yield and yield components of quinoa varieties in the 2018 spring
cropping season in Hai Hau, Nam Dinh
Individual
yield
Actual
yield
Number of panicles Head panicle length
1000-seed weight
(g)
Treatment
(panicles)
(cm)
(g plant-1)
(tons ha-1)
Varieties
Atlas
17.3
17.5
22.7b
23.4a
2.44b
2.51a
22.4a
21.3b
1.17
1.15
Moradas
Nitrogen levels
0 N
13.2e
15.2d
17.3c
21.3a
19.9b
20.3c
23.0b
23.1b
25.7a
23.2b
2.35e
2.43d
2.48c
2.59a
2.54b
15.3e
18.2d
22.7c
27.2a
25.8b
0.86d
1.09c
1.24b
1.35a
1.25b
30 N
60 N
90 N
150 N
Note: Means followed by the same lowercase letter in a column are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD.
the main stem, and the head panicle length under
artificial salt stress conditions. Previous studies
showed similar results in that plant height, dry
matter accumulation, seed number, seed weight,
and grain yield were reduced under the effects of
saline stress (Jacobsen et al., 2001; Koyro &
Eisa, 2008; Gómez-Pando et al., 2010; Ruiz-
Carrasco et al., 2011; Razzaghi et al., 2012; Eisa
et al., 2012; Bonales-Alatorre et al., 2013;
Peterson & Murphy, 2014; Panuccio et al., 2014).
In this research, applying nitrogen at a
different doses in the winter cropping season did
not have any effect on the time from sowing to
flowering, but extended the total growth duration
(Table 1). This could be explained that in the
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Effects of nitrogen application on the growth and yield of quinoa under saline conditions in Northern Vietnam
winter cropping season, plant growth was
accelerated due to high temperatures at the early
stages of development, so the impacts of
fertilizer were negligibly noticeable which led to
similar flowering times in all the fertilized
treatments. However, at the later stages of
development, when the influence of fertilizer
becomes more significant, increasing the
nitrogen levels resulted in better plant growth
along with longer growth duration. In the spring
cropping season, the time from sowing to
flowering as well as the total growth duration
tended to increase as the nitrogen level was
increased (Table 4). Dinh Thai Hoang et al.
(2015) also indicated that when the amount of
nitrogen fertilizer was increased, the time from
sowing to flowering and the total growth
duration of the investigated quinoa varieties were
not affected in the winter cropping season, but in
the spring cropping season, they were extended
from 1 to 3 days. Basra et al. (2014) also reported
similar results that increasing the amount of
fertilizer from 0 to 125 kg N ha-1 did not affect
the flowering time but extended the total growth
duration. In this study, under net-house
conditions with both salinity levels, the growth
ability and yield of quinoa increased when the
amount of nitrogen application increased from 0
to 90 kg N ha-1, and decreased when the fertilizer
amount reached 150 kg N ha-1 (in the first
experiment). Similar results were found in the
second experiment for the two quinoa varieties
conducted under natural saline conditions in Hai
Hau, Nam Dinh province. In Hanoi, under non-
saline alluvial land of the Red River Delta, Dinh
Thai Hoang et al. (2015) also showed similar
results when nitrogen was applied in the range of
0 to 102 kg N ha-1, plant height, plant diameter,
SPAD index, dry weight accumulation, and yield
of quinoa varieties reached the highest values at
a rate of 90 kg N ha-1. However, the optimum
amount of fertilizer depends on the specific
conditions of each region. Basra et al. (2014)
reported that the 1000-seed weight, the number
of panicles per plant, and the grain yield of
quinoa increased when the nitrogen doses were
increased from 0 to 75 kg N ha-1. An experiment
with the five nitrogen levels of 0, 90, 180, 270,
and 360 kg N ha-1 on sandy soils in Egypt, Shams
(2012) stated that the grain yield of quinoa was
maximized when nitrogen was applied at a rate
of 90 kg N ha-1. Therefore, it could be concluded
that the growth and yield of quinoa increase to
their maximum when the nitrogen application
level reaches the optimum level, then begin to
decrease if the nitrogen level is further increased.
The optimum nitrogen application level for the
coastal provinces in the Northern part of Vietnam
is 90 kg N ha-1.
Conclusions
Saline stress had no effect on quinoa growth
duration, but reduced the growth and yield
parameters of the quinoa cultivars. Similar trends
were found in the response of quinoa to the
nitrogen application rates in both experiments,
particularly in the increases of plant height,
number of leaves on the main stem, number of
branches,
stem
diameter,
dry
matter
accumulation, panicle length, panicle number,
1000-seed weight, individual yield, and actual
yield of the quinoa cultivars according to the
increase of nitrogen application rates from 0 to
90 kg N ha-1. The application dosage 90 kg N ha-1
was recommended as the optimum dose of
nitrogen application for quinoa grown under
saline soil conditions in Northern Vietnam.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by grants from the
Vietnamese Ministry of Science and Technology
(Grant-in-Aid for evaluation of quinoa in
different ecological conditions in Vietnam
HNQT/SPDP/07.17). We also thank Dr. Daniel
Bertero (Buenos Aires University, Argentina)
and Dr. Robert Van Loo (Wageningen UR, the
Netherlands) for providing the quinoa genotypes
for this study.
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