An overview of history, culture and society of Hmong people in Thanh Hoa
Hong Duc University Journal of Science, E.5, Vol.10, P (164 - 172), 2019
AN OVERVIEW OF HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY OF
HMONG PEOPLE IN THANH HOA
Mai Van Tung, Le Thi Thanh Thuy1
Received: 12 February 2019 / Accepted: 11 June 2019 / Published: June 2019
©Hong Duc University (HDU) and Hong Duc University Journal of Science
Abstract: Hmong people belong to the Hmong - Yao language branch, the South Asian language
family, is one of the ethnic minority groups which has a large number of population among ethnic
groups in Vietnam. Hmong people have the slow migration and settlement process compared to
other ethnic groups in our country. They are located mainly in some highland provinces: Ha
Giang, Tuyen Quang, Dien Bien, Lai Chau, Cao Bang, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Son La, etc. and in the
western mountainous region of Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces. Hmong people in Thanh Hoa
reside mainly in three districts: Muong Lat, Quan Son and Quan Hoa. Most of them come from
other places in the northern mountainous areas, migrating through two direct ways. Essentially,
Hmong people in Thanh Hoa have a high sense of ethnicity and also maintain many traditional
cultural features which contribute to enlivening the colorful picture of ethnic culture of Xu Thanh.
Keywords: Hmong people, Thanh Hoa, history, culture and society.
1. Introduction
Among the ethnic minority community of Vietnam, the Hmong people belong to the
Hmong - Yao language branch, of the South Asian language family; is one of the largest
ethnic minority groups in our country (recently Hmong population around 1,068,189) [2].
The name Hmong has a long historic origin. The name HMong following the Chinese-
Vietnamese pronunciation is Miao (Miêu). According to some researchers, this name is used
to call the people who early knew the cultivation of rice in area of Banh Loi and Dong Dinh
lakes, which has now become an official name. The majority of Hmong people in our country
call themselves as Mống (Hmoob), other Hmong groups call themselves as Ná Miảo. Mống is
also the name of Hmong people in Laos, Thailand and in some parts of China. The name-
Mống means the name of ethnic communities as well as the name of Family. Based on a
number of ethnographic characteristics, it is possible to divide Hmong people into some
groups: Hmong Trang (Mongz Dou), Hmong Hoa (Mongz Lenhs), Hmong Xanh (Mongz
Dua), Hmong Den (Mongz Duz).
Hmong people are considered as the descendants of one of the ancient indigenous
inhabitants living in south China. From southwest China, Hmong people migrated to Vietnam in
different times. The reasons of the migration is the desire to escape the oppression of feudal
landlords, the hope to escape the slaughter after the protests and having a better place to live. The
Mai Van Tung, Le Thi Thanh Thuy
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humaninties, Hong Duc University
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first migrations of the Hmong people began over 300 years ago to the border areas of Ha Giang
and Tuyen Quang province. Then, the migration flow lasted until the day China was completely
liberated in 1950, in which there were two large migrations about 200 years and 100 years ago.
Most of our Hmong people still remember that they came from Quy Chau to Vietnam [5].
Currently, Hmong people in Vietnam live mainly in some provinces such as Ha Giang,
Tuyen Quang, Dien Bien, Lai Chau, Cao Bang, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Son La ... and the
western mountainous regions of Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces.
The habitat areas of Hmong people are often on the mountainside with an average
altitude from 800m to 1500-1700m, rugged terrain, cliffs erect on the valleys of abyss areas. At
an altitude of 800m - 1700m, the climate lies in the sub-tropical climate, the annual average
temperature is from 15- 20 celsius. Annual rainfall is in the range of 2000mm- 3000mm,
however, in some places where are sheltered from the wind, rainfall is only about 700mm.
Characteristics of rainfall where Hmong people live in are a rainy season and a dry season. In
the dry season, monthly rainfall is only tens of millimeters or less. Sometimes it does not rain,
so this area often lacks of water. With the diligence and creativeness, Hmong people have
turned many highlands of northern Vietnam into their beloved homeland. For Hmong people in
Sa Pa - Lao Cai, they possess an extremely rich and diverse terraced field system. This is a
wonderful and unique creative work which is very valuable - as the unique cultural heritage,
preserved through many generations of Hmong people. Terraced fields are a treasure of
indigenous knowledge of ethnic groups that need to be preserved and promoted. It can be seen
that the imprint of the Hmong people associated with the life of settlement and sustainable
development for many generations in this important frontier. In order to affirm the land of Lao
Cai or Ha Giang are their beloved second hometown. Hmong people often say:
The fish live in the water (Cá ở dưới nước)
The birds fly in the sky (Chim bay ở trên trời)
We live in the highland (Chúng ta sống ở vùng cao)
And the birds have their nests (Và con chim có tổ)
Hmong people ourselves also have the root (Người Mông ta cũng có quê)
Our root is in Mong Vac (Quê ta là Mông Vạc) [5]
People in Dong Van plateau also believe that on the top of Mong Vac mountain, there
is a God's well and there is a couple of birds specialized in picking up leaves to make water in
God‟s well clean. People want to drink the water from the well to get away from sickness and
when they die, they will be returned to their ancestors. Therefore, in the past, many old
people wished to visit Mong Vac, "where the fatherland was held" and "to drink miraculous
water from the well". Besides the superstitious factor, these things have a certain meaning to
the formation of the love of the homeland and also arising the patriotism of Vietnam of the
Hmong people. That patriotism is increasingly strengthened in the process of standing side by
side with ethnic people fighting to protect our country and build a new life.
2. History and ethnic process of Hmong people in Thanh Hoa
About the origin of Hmong people in Thanh Hoa, in a research towards Thanh Hoa
province (Le Province de Thanh Hoa) written by H. Le Breton (1918) describles that some
people met a number of Hmong people and Yao people in mountainous area of Thanh Hoa.
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Those were the new residents from China traveling to Indochina most recently around the
middle of the last century (19th century), apparently after the Chinese slaughter (under the
Qing Dynasty) at that time in Guizhou region. Also, according to H. Le Breton, Hmong
people are very good at tilling a field (on the mountain slopes). Only when cultivation land
can no longer be cultivated, the whole tribe will move to a new forest corner in Thanh Hoa
province ; they usually gathered near Muong Lat area, in Luc Canh and Huu Thuy cantons of
Quan Hoa moutain district [1].
According to the documentary named Thanh Hoa by Charles Robequain (1929), it says
that Hmong people live behind to the Yao people (means that Hmong people live in higher
areas than Yao people do) on the mountain of Phu Nghi range (in the writer‟s opinion Phu
Nghi is now called Pu Nhi). This mountain block is at the border between Houaphanh
province (Laos) and Thanh Hoa province (Vietnam), between the Ma river and Luong river,
with the average high range about 1,200m. Inside Indochina, it is rarely to see the Hmong
people live below the 800m altitude, they usually live on the mountain slopes with the high
range between 800m and 1000m. In other words, they "jumped" from one mountain to the
others despite of the administrative boundaries.
Also according to the survey study of Ch. Robequain (1929), the first Hmong people
entered Muong Lat around 1900 - 1905. They live separately on high and steep slopes,
because they claim that they cannot be in a hot and toxic valley, in the land of leeches and
buffaloes, the dead must be buried under water, and the opium poppy cannot grow well.
Hmong people have an idiom : „the fish live in the water, the birds fly in the sky, Hmong
people live in the moutain‟. And also according to Ch. Robequain, he says that Hmong
people do not want to admit that all the valleys have the owners (Thai and Muong people),
therefore they cannot be there [3].
According to the Hmong people in Pu Nhi, Muong Lat district narrated, their ancestors
migrated from Huoaphan (Laos) to Muong Lat (Thanh Hoa) about 150 years ago (6-7
generations). However, other legends tell that the Hmong people in Muong Lat and in Son La
are brothers. Due to the poor circumstances, they were separated. The older brother went to
Son La to bring his father's sword; and the younger brother took a cap to Laos, then he stayed
at Muong Lat [1].
Thus, although it is only a legend about the family, it provides us with information that
the nearest ancestors of the Hmong people in Pu Nhi (Muong Lat) came from Laos. However, it
does not exclude the possibility that their previous ancestors were one of the groups who had
been to the northern mountains, following the ways from China to Ha Giang or Lao Cai, and
then moved everywhere and some of them went to the mountainous area in Thanh Hoa [6].
Mac Duong (1964) indicates that Miao people (người Mèo) living in mountainous area
of Thanh- Nghe mainly resided in Muong Xen district (Nghe An) and in Quan Hoa district
(Thanh Hoa). They were form Upper Laos and northwest Vietnam and migrated to these
metioned province about 200 years ago [4]. From these meterials, it can be said that Hmong
people in Thanh Hoa migrated directly from Laos and before from northwest Vietnam.
Consequently, Hmong people (including Yao people and Kho-mu people) entered
Thanh Hoa when Thai people have already resided in low valleys that are suitable for
cultivation of wet rice. To avoid to be tenants or serfs of other ethnic groups, Hmong people
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settled in higher mountainside. Each village has about 15 - 20 rooftops and the village is far
away from the other as a space of a mountain, therefore travelling is extremely difficult.
In terms of population, in the first decades of the 20th century, the documentary related
to ethnic minorities in the mountainous areas of Thanh Hoa were almost absent especially
related to Hmong people. According to the earliest record of French people about this
territory of H. Le Breton or Ch. Robequain also did not mention this issue either. As H. Le
Breton (1918) explains that because of shifting cultivation, the Hmong people usually
residing on the peaks of the mountain, hence, it is very difficult to know exactly the number
of their population [1]. However, from the 1990s onwards, the Hmong migrated freely to the
western region of Thanh Hoa with the large number of people made the local population
increased dramatically. If before the year 1990, only 3,638 Mong people lived in the
mountainous area of Thanh Hoa, 10 years later (in 1999), the number of Hmong people was
up to 13,325 people [7], an increase of approximately 10,000 people, mainly from the
northern mountainous provinces of Vietnam.
Currently, the Hmong people in Thanh Hoa reside mainly in two communes, Pu Nhi and
Quang Chieu, Muong Lat district, but the majority are in Pu Nhi commune, basically Hmong
Trang people (Mongz Dou). This is the first place that Hmong people set their foot on the land
(the writer called these people are the old Hmong people). According to statistic, until
31.07.2007, there were 14,755 Hmong people in Muong Lat (accounting for 89.05% of Mong
people population in Thanh Hoa). In addition, Hmong people also settle in Quan Son districts
(915 people, accounting for 6.20%) and Quan Hoa district (700 people, accounting for 4.75%).
In recent years, it can be seen that the picture of distribution of Hmong ethnic group in Thanh
Hoa is very dynamic with a high population growth rate. According to Vietnamese Cencus in
1960, Hmong community in Thanh Hoa was 1,235 people; in 1979 there were 2,606 people; the
period from 1960 to 1979 increased by 1,371 people; by 1989 there were 3,638 people; by
1999, the Hmong population in Thanh Hoa had a sudden increase by 13,325 people, the period
1989 - 1999 increased by 9,687 people, 10 times higher compared to the previous period. From
1999 to 2009 Hmong population increased by 1,097 people.
Table 1. Hmong population in Thanh Hoa
No.
1
2
District
Muong Lat
Quan Hoa
Quan Son
Number of people
12.789
708
925
3
Total
14.422
Source: Departments of Ethnicity, Thanh Hoa province (Statistics in 2009)
Currently, Hmong people in Thanh Hoa reside in 46 villages, including 9 communes of
three border highland districts including: Muong Lat (41 villages, 5 communes), Quan Son (3
villages, 2 communes) and Quan Hoa (2 villages, 2 communes, in Buoc Hien village in Trung
Thanh commune only 2 households). Muong Lat district has 3 communes in which Hmong
people make up over 70% of the population (Phu Nhi commune has 13/14 villages with 807
households, 4,674 people; Trung Ly commune has 12/16 villages with 521 households, 521
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households, Muong Ly commune has 11/14 villages with 464 households, 3,062 people, and
Tam Chung, Quang Chieu (Muong Lat) communes; Na Mong, Son Thuy (Quan Son); Phu
Son and Trung Thanh (Quan Hoa) are 2 villages where Hmong people live alternately with
other ethnic groups [6].
Hmong people at the frontiers in Muong Lat include 2 communes of Pu Nhi and Nhi Son.
In Pu Nhi commune, Hmong people concentrated in the villages of Pu Ngua, Hua Pu, Ban Com,
Ca Noi, Ca Tau, Pha Den, Na Tao, Pu Tong and Loc Ha; in Nhi Son commune includes the
villages: Cat, Pa Hoc, Chim, Keo Hu, Keo Te. Additionally, in Quan Son district, Hmong people
live in the border communes of Son Thuy and Na Meo. In Son Thuy commune, Hmong people
live in Xia Noi and Spring villages; in Na Meo commune, they reside in Ché Lau village.
Particularly, Hmong people in Quan Son district originated directly from Pu Nhi
commune, the old Quan Hoa district. Recently, it is called Pu Nhi commune belonging to
Muong Lat district. They moved to Quan Son in late 1989 (when Quan Hoa district was not
separated into 3 districts: Quan Hoa, Quan Son and Muong Lat), at that time, they had only 34
households, with nearly 600 people, lived in 3 villages chosen by themselves is Xia Noi, Mua
Xuan and Che Lau of Son Thuy commune, each village had more than 10 households [3]. In
1999, to implement the Decree 65 of the Government, Son Thuy commune was split into two
communes: Son Thuy and Na Meo. Cho Lau village belongs to Na Meo commune.
In general, Hmong people in Thanh Hoa mostly migrated from other places in the northern
mountainous region through 2 direct and indirect roads. Hmong people in Thanh Hoa have three
branches: Hmong Trang (Mongz Dou), Hmong Hoa (Mongz Lenhs), Hmong Den (Mongz Duz).
In which, Hmong Trang people (Mongz Dou) have the largest population and the Hmong Den
(Mongz Duz) people have the smallest population. The Hmong people in Thanh Hoa have many
families such as Ho, Thao, Lau, Va, Cha, Ly, Vu, Vang, and Dang. The most populous families
are Lau, Ho and Thao. Due to living in high mountainous areas, their livelihood mainly is on
shifting cultivation activities combined with raising, gardening and forest exploitation. Basically,
Hmong ethnic community in Thanh Hoa preserve many traditional cultures, contributing to
enriching the diversity of the muti-colour cultural picture of Xu Thanh ethnic communities.
3. Cultural and social characteristics of Hmong in Thanh Hoa
Like the Hmong people living in our northwest region, the resident unit of the Hmong
people in Thanh Hoa likes the village of Kinh and Thai people. Hmong Trang people (Mongz
Dou) call their village as lú ro and Hmong Den (Mongz Duz) people called it as lu rò.
However, because of living alongside with Thai people for a long time, Hmong people often
call their resident units as same as Thai people do, namely Ché Lau, Xia Non, Mua Xuan, Pu
Ngua, and Lo Ha villages...
Each village of the Hmong usually has more than 10 rooftops in one place or in many
places. The characteristic of the Hmong‟s village is that they have their own territory and
business areas; the residents of a village consist of many family names and there is one more
crowed family than others; each village has a common Earth Gods (head of the territory) and
common conventions related to agricultural production, animal husbandry, forest protection
and mutual help.
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Each village of Hmong people is seen as a cultural community. Hmong people have
belief in worshiping the Earth Gods, the Earth Gods may be general Gods, and sometimes be
the men who exploit this land, protect and build a village or the leaders who have the duty to
protect the Hmong ethnicity. In the spiritual life, early spring festivals are the chances for the
whole community, especially young men and women, singing and playing, organizing folk
games such as swinging, Ferris wheel, wrestling and throwing ball. In addition, there are
traditional Tet ceremonies, such as Sao Nong ceremony which is held annually in January to
worship in the Earth Gods (Thổ ti, Thổ địa).
Hmong people have a number of family names, each family name has many descents
and each descent has different lines. Specially, the cohesion of family names of Hmong
people is solid expressed through the authority of the Head of families, who can decide the
settlement of his villages as Hmong‟s idiom often says that: He holds his hand, his villagers
stay; He opens his hand, his villagers leave. People who have the same family names like
Lau, Thao, Ho consider each other as brothers despite they have common old ancestor. The
families in the same line do not need to reside near each other. Although they live far away,
everytime they meet, they are considered as family members. Therefore, it is possible to
explain why Hmong people often migrate in the lineages, even by the village [8]. This
indicates the durable characteristics of Hmong‟s culture.
Hmong family is a patriarchal family, highly appreciating ancestral origin. As a result,
family and descent relationship of the Hmong people are connected and strong, as well as they
are responsible for protecting each other. That is why in married life, despite of the distance
between ten generations, a man and a woman are not able to marry because of the same
ancestor and blood relatives. Due to the nature of the nuclear patriarchal family (a couple and
their children living together), when their son get married, he tends to live separately. That
trend is expressed in the proverb of the Hmong people: "Big trees split many branches, crowed
people split into small group” (Cây to cây chia nhánh; người đông người chia nhỏ).
Although in traditional society, Hmong‟s men are valued in the family, the role of
women is very important and just behind the head of the family. Particularly, when the house
owner decides some important issues, he discusses only with his wife and when only his wife
agrees, everything go smoothly. In addition, the family is seen as a social unit, the division of
labor among family members of Hmong people is also strict according to gender and age.
The men often take on the heavy work such as: plowing, harrowing, cutting trees, hoeing,
planting. Otherwise, the women take part in farming, doing embroidery at home, doing
housework, weaving and knitting.
In Hmong‟s society, people always show their high respect to the elderly. Therefore,
the authority and responsibility of the village patriarch is vital. If there is any conflicts in the
family and village, the village patriarch is responsible for reconciliation, punishment, and
being an advisor to deal with the big issues of the community like a marriage, funerals, etc.
In the ways of behavior, the Hmong in Thanh Hoa believe that when visitors come, the
owners must greet the guests first, this shows the humility and respect for the guests. In
communicating with the outside world, Hmong people also know how to use Thai language -
like „popular language‟ in mountainous areas in the west of Thanh Hoa. Currently, Hmong‟s
young generation can speak 3 languages: mother tongue (Hmong language), Thai language and
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national language (Vietnamese- Kinh). Therefore, Hmong people are able to communicate with
people living in Laos‟ border area, because most of them are mostly Thai and Hmong people.
Hence, for a long time, the Hmong and Thai people in the border areas of Vietnam and Laos
have a mutual understanding in exchange goods and culture. These exchanges create a strong
relation between two countries day by day.
Furthermore, Hmong people have a typical physical cultural life, creating their own
values, expressing ethnic identity and ethnic consciousness. It is tradition of living in house
builded on the ground, stalling, covering around the house with wooden planks or bamboo
wattle, and the palm-leaf roofs or embankments, or wood called sa mu.
Regarding to traditional clothes, Hmong‟s men wear loose-fitting trousers, drawstring
belts. Their‟s clothes are usually black with some patterns, but loose-fitting trousers have no
pattern at all. Additionally, Hmong women wear skirts and patterned shirts. The skirt has two
types, a layer and multi-layer skirts. Hmong women's costumes in Thanh Hoa have three
different designs, showing the suitability for physique, psychology and three years of age:
unmarried girls, middle-aged women, and elderly women. Furthermore, women wear a turban
on their head, and the men often wear soft hats or not.
In term of cuisine, Hmong people eat mainly rice, sticky rice is only available during
festivals. Previously, due to the difficult conditions, Hmong people often use water instead of
soup to ea with rice, or boiled vegetables eat with fish sauce or salt, boiled vegetable water is
used to eat with rice. The dish of pork impregnated with salt hung in the kitchen corner for a
year is also a unique dish of the Hmong people. Black meat chicken is also a special food of
the Hmong people, often cooked to treat precious guests, this type of chicken is also used to
make medicine for the good health.
Hmong people cerebrate the Tet‟s holiday following the New Year calendar, at the end
of the year, in December. The time of spring celebrations usually takes three to five days, but
sometimes lasts up to half of month depending on economic conditions of each village, each
year. In a few days off, Hmong people prepare meals and often invite people in the same
family names come to join with them for fun and joy. In those days, the households often
slaughter pigs, they have the pork dishes with enough intestine of pigs, with a bottle of wine,
the sticky rice, then they set on the ancestor altar (đa xử ca) to invite the ancestors to come
back home and join the Tet‟s holiday with them. On the holidays and New Year, people wish
each other beautiful words, hope that everyone will be healthy, have many descendants and
hope for productive crops. The visitors come to Hmong village on this occasion will be
warmly treated by their compatriots, which is the hospitable tradition of the Hmong people.
Like Hmong people in the northern mountainous region of our country, the Hmong
people in Thanh Hoa have a rich cultural and spiritual life. First of all, the treasure of folk arts
and literature include stories, folk songs, proverbs which reflects the creative ability of the
masses and their awareness of nature, society, culture and national history [8].
Many folk tales reflect the unpleasant side of society: the suffering of the orphans, the
grim treatment of sister-in-law with the bride, the evil step-mothers, the cruel mandarins;
otherwise dignifying talented people from the residents, beautiful love stories, victors who
against cruel men. The explanations about the phenomena of the physical and spiritual life of
Hmong people are various (making ghosts, worshiping the women (cúng mụ), women are not
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allowed to go upstairs, worship the columns of house, panpine dance (múa Khèn)…that is all
remembered by family members as family activities in the normal life.
In the folk literature of Hmong people, folk songs occupy a significant position. Many
folk songs have good ideological content, subtle and discreet expressions, are reminded by
images closed to daily life. The common feature of folk songs is that it not only sings with
lyrics but also sing with other instruments like wit pan- pine (khèn), Jew‟s harp (đàn môi),
and leaf horns (kèn lá). These instruments are closely associated with folk songs of the
Hmong. When people listen to pan- pine, Jew‟s harp and leaf horns, they deeply understand
the content that the performer expresses. In folk songs, there are not only short stories but
also some famous long episodes such as Tiếng hát làm dâu (the voice of bride), which is
known by other ethnic groups. Mostly, Hmong people knows more or less the folk songs as
well as the way of using their traditional instruments.
Hmong‟s folk music is lyrical and plentiful which reflects the natural beauty of the
highlands, the bright beauty of Hmong‟s spirits, therefore many researchers are interested in
studying Hmong‟s music.
Hmong‟s musical instruments are very unique. Panpine is used in funerals and some
family rituals. At the time when the men go for walk or relax under the moon at night after a
long hardworking day, they tend to blow panpines. Also, Jew‟s harp and learf horns are the
means of exchanging the hearts of young men and women in the late night. Especially, the
meaning behinds the word of the song they play with those instruments is more powerful than
the word itself [5]. Moreover, for Hmong people in Thanh Hoa in general, flute is also a close
and popular instrument in their spiritual life. This is also an instrument that is easy to express
heart, especially the feelings of boys and girls in love.
In some areas of Thanh Hoa province, the panpine dances of Hmong people are also
popular with Kinh, Muong, and Thai people. They use panpine dances in parties, events,
public holidays, public celebrations, house celebrations, New Year celebrations. In some
special event like the music events to welcome the Congress, welcome the honour guests,
Hmong‟s panpipe dances is performed by Hmong people or by other ethnic groups.
However, cultural and spiritual values including the treasure of folklore, music of
Hmong people has been eroded. It does only exist in the older generations, for the younger
generation, few of them is interested in and has little understanding about it.
4. Conclusion
To sum up, Hmong people in Vietnam ingeneral and in Thanh Hoa in particular have
the late migration and settlement processes compared to other ethnic groups in our country.
So far, there has been a little change in Hmong communities in term of population. In the past
and until now, Hmong people mainly take up shifting cultivation and animal husbandry as
their main economic activities; other economic activities are only complementary.
Additionally, Hmong people have a high sense of community, spirit of mutual support to help
each other when the village have to deal with great work. They also have a sense of material
contribution to spiritual and cultural activities for community events Therefore, the values of
the history, culture and society cultural are the solid base for Hmong people to survive and
develop sustainably in their own homeland.
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References
[1] H.Le Breton (1918), La province de Thanh Hóa, Hanoi La Revue Indochinoise (stored
in Library of Thanh Hoa province).
[2] Central Steering Committee for Population & Housing Census (2010), Vietnam
Population and Housing Census 2009, Publishing house: Statistics
[3] Charles Robequain (1929), Le Thanh Hóa, Etude Géographique d úne province
Annamite - Bruxelles, G - Van Oest (Vietnamese version, Thanh Hoa Publishing
house, 2012).
[4] Mac Duong (1964), Ethnic groups in the North Central region (Population distribution
and typical cultural characteristics), Publishing house: Social Sciences, Hanoi
[5] Institute of Anthropology (2014), Hmong People, cited in Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam
(Northern provinces) (reprinted with amendments and supplements), Publishing house:
Social Sciences, Hanoi
[6] Dau Tuan Nam (2009), Free migration of Hmong people in Western Thanh Hoa and
Nghe An today, doctoral thesis in History, Ethnology, the Institute of Anthropology,
Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences.
[7] Thanh Hoa‟s People Committee (2006), Project on stabilizing life, production and
socio-economic development of Hmong ethnic minority in Muong Lat district, Thanh
Hoa province.
[8] Nguyen Manh Tien (2014), Melodious moutain peaks, a way to figure out Hmong’s
personality, The Gioi Publishers, Hanoi.
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