Domestic solid waste management following circular economy model
ISSN 2588-1299
VJAS 2020; 3(4): 872-881
Vietnam Journal
of Agricultural
Sciences
Domestic Solid Waste Management
Following Circular Economy Model
Nguyen Thi Thu Quynh1 & Nguyen Quoc Hung2
1Faculty of Economics and Rural Development, Vietnam National University of
Agriculture, Hanoi 131000, Vietnam
2Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment, Hanoi 129100, Vietnam
Abstract
Along with socio-economic development, the volume of domestic
solid waste in Vietnam is increasing by 12% annually. The current
management model of domestic solid waste presents many
limitations: low collection rate, lack of proper treatment, and low
levels of recycling and reusing rates but high rates of buried waste
and pollution. Published research and overviews of practical
implementation of solid waste management models in typical
countries around the world have shown the need to innovate domestic
solid waste management in Vietnam following the circular economy
model to increase the economic efficiency of resources and to
minimize polluting the environment. Accordingly, state management
of domestic solid waste needs to be reformed synchronously to ensure
the development of a closed cycle of waste from identifying
generators, classifying waste at sources, collecting, transporting, and
treating waste, to the consumption of recycled waste.
Keywords
Domestic solid waste, circular economy model, recycled
Introduction
Along with socio-economic development, the volume of
domestic solid waste (DSW) in Vietnam is increasing rapidly and
becoming an urgent environmental problem. High population
growth, in combination with rapid industrialization and urbanization,
have resulted in the growth of waste generation. It is estimated that
the volume of DSW in Vietnam has experienced a growth of 10-16%
per year (World Bank, 2018). Thus, effective management of DSW
is required to prevent harmful effects on the environment and society.
Recognizing this problem, in recent years, the Vietnamese
government and authorities have made great efforts in the
management of DSW. However, after the implementation process,
there are still many shortcomings, namely the legal and policy system
on DSW management is still incomplete and overlapped; the
Received: May 28, 2020
Accepted: November 16, 2020
Correspondence to
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
872
Nguyen Thi Thu Quynh & Nguyen Quoc Hung (2020)
organization and assignment of responsibilities
for DSW are still fragmented and lack
uniformity, making it difficult to implement; the
implementation of approved DSW management
planning in localities is still slow; investments in
DSW management are limited; there is a lack of
appropriate regulations to attract capital
investment resources from society; the
inspection and examination of law enforcement
are still limited; and sanctions regulating
violations of DSW management are not strong
enough (Nguyen Trung Thang, 2019). Moreover,
the current traditional model of DSW
management - a linear economy which follows
the principle of "take – make – waste" (We "take"
resources from the ground to "make" products,
which we use, and, when we no longer want
them, "throw" them away) is no longer working
for all economic actors. Following this model,
only 62-90% of generated waste is collected and
processed; many types of useful DSW are not
recycled for reuse, and 71% of DSW is buried or
burned wastefully and pollutedly (Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, 2019;
2020). Typically, the leachate at landfill sites is
discharged directly to the environment, allowing
it to infiltrate and directly impact the water
environment, and diffuse pathogens creating
serious impacts on the environment and human
health (Ministry of Natural Resource and
Environment, 2017). A study in Lang Son
province addressed that the rate of people with
illnesses and diseases such as diarrhea,
dermatology conditions, and respiration
problems, etc., at the affected areas of the landfill
sites is much higher than those of the unaffected
areas (Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment, 2011).
Thuy, 2019). The concept of the circular
economy model aims to redefine growth and
focuses on positive society-wide benefits (World
Economic Forum, 2014). It entails gradually
decoupling economic activity from the
consumption of finite resources and designing
waste out of the system (Macarthur, 2017). The
highlight of the model is to treat DSW as a
renewable resource, requiring a closed cycle
process with the participation of many actors to
create a primary and secondary market for DSW
(Vietnam Business Council for Sustainable
Development, 2019). The goal of the model is to
standardize the activities of the actors involved
in the closed cycle process to minimize the
emissions causing waste and environmental
pollution in order to achieve economic - social -
environment efficiency. In this paper, the authors
have generalized the current state of DSW in
Vietnam and appraised the implementation of the
current traditional DSW management model to
address the need for reforming the DSW
management model following the circular
economy model.
Methodology
The authors applied the desktop study
method to review the related published scientific
articles and specialized reports related to the
circular economy model. The Proquest Central
and the Google search for academic articles using
the keyword "circular economy" were applied. In
addition, information and data on the real
situation of domestic solid waste in Vietnam
were collected and reviewed from annual
national environmental status reports published
by the Ministry of Natural Resources and the
Environment. Descriptive and comparative
statistical methods were used to reflect the
current situation of DSW in Vietnam over time,
by locality, and by region.
An overview of studies and practical
implementation of DSW management models in
several typical countries around the world shows
the need for reforming the state management of
DSW in Vietnam following the circular economy
model (Luong Thu Thuy, 2019). The circular
economy model was recognized and
implemented very early in some Western
countries such as Sweden, Germany, and Japan,
but has been mentioned in Vietnam only recently
(Preston, 2012; Alanet al., 2016; Luong Thu
Results and Discussion
According to Vietnam Standards (TCVN
6705-2009), domestic solid waste includes solid
waste generated from households, commercial
businesses, and agencies. According to Decree
No. 38/2015/ND-CP of the government dated
873
Domestic solid waste management following circular economy model
April 24, 2015, on the management of waste and
discarded materials, domestic solid waste (also
called household garbage) means solid waste
generated in the daily activities of humans. Solid
waste is characterized by a solid or paste form
(also called sludge) discharged from production,
businesses, services, daily life, or other activities
(Government, 2015).
DSW generated, about 9,129 tons/day, Hanoi
city ranked second with 6,500 tons/day, and
Tuyen Quang was the locality with the least
amount of waste generation, only 0.178 tons/day
(Table 1).
Observing the volume of DSW generated by
economic regions (Figure 1) shows that the
Southeast region had the highest generated
volume, accounting for 31.5% of the total
domestic solid waste volume, whereas the
Central Highlands and the Northern Midlands
and Highlands had the lowest generated volumes
in the country. This clearly shows a positive
correlation between the proportion of the volume
of DSW generated to the speed of economic
development and urbanization of the localities
and economic regions.
Also in this Decree, daily-life solid waste is
classified at its source in accordance with the
purpose of management and treatment into the
following groups:
(a) Biodegradable organic group (leftovers,
leaves, vegetables, fruits, and animal carcasses);
(b) Reusable and recycled group (paper,
plastic, metal, rubber, plastic, and glass); and
(c) Others.
Categories of domestic solid waste
Current status of domestic solid waste in
Vietnam
According to the composition of domestic
solid waste, organic waste accounted for the
largest proportion and inorganic waste accounted
for a lower proportion (Table 2). Among
inorganic wastes, the proportion of plastic and
nylon, paper, and metal was relatively high,
which poses a need to recycle and reuse these
periodically to avoid wasting and causing
pollution pressure on the environment.
Volume generated
According to the survey assessing the status
of DSW performed by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and the Environment, from 2010 to
2018, the amount of generated DSW increased an
average of about 12% per year. In 2015, the
country generated a total DSW volume of about
42,789 tons/day, and by 2018 this figure
increased to more than 61,600 tons/day, of which
the volume generated in urban areas was more
than 37,200 tons/day and the respective number
of rural areas was more than 24,400 tons/day
(Ministry of Natural Resources and the
Environment, 2020). In particular, Ho Chi Minh
City was the locality with the largest amount of
Traditional model of domestic solid waste
management
The typical traditional model of DSW
management in urban areas is described in
Figure 2 (World Bank, 2018).
Accordingly, after generating domestic solid
waste, generators
including households,
Table 1. Volume of domestic solid waste generated in localities across Vietnam in 2018
Average waste generated per day
(tons)
Ranking
Province
Most DSW generated
1
2
3
4
Ho Chi Minh city
Hanoi
Thanh Hoa
Binh Duong
Dong Nai
9,128
6,500
2,246
1,764
1,838
5
Least DSW generated
63
62
61
60
59
Tuyen Quang
Bac Kan
Kon Tum
Dien Bien
Ha Nam
0.178
0.191
0.212
0.264
0.275
Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2020).
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
874
Nguyen Thi Thu Quynh & Nguyen Quoc Hung (2020)
Mekong Delta,
14.8%
Red River Delta,
21.6%
Northern
Midlands and
Highlands, 8.7%
Southeast,
31.5%
North Central
and Central
Coast, 19.7%
Central
Highlands, 3.8%
Figure 1. Volume of DSW generated by economic region, 2018
Source: Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment (2020).
Table 2. Categories of domestic solid waste
Unit: %
Categories
Organic wastes
Plastic and nylon
Paper and cardboard
Metal
Big cities in Vietnam
50.2 - 68.9
3.4 - 10.6
3.3 - 6.6
Hanoi
Hai Phong
46.0 - 49.8
12.2 - 14.2
3.8 - 4.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.8 - 0.9
23.9 - 24.7
0.6
51.9
3.0
2.7
1.4 - 4.9
0.9
Glass
0.5 - 2.0
0.5
Inert materials
14.9 - 28.2
0.0 - 5.0
38.0
Rubber and leather
Animal and plant tissue
Hazardous wastes
Others
1.3
1.5 - 2.5
-
-
0.0 - 1.0
-
-
-
Textiles: 1.6
8.6 - 10.5
Note: (-) Not available
Source: World Bank(2018).
businesses, shops, and streets do not or rarely
classify waste at the source. Waste classification
activities are most frequently carried out in
commercial centers and supermarkets. In
households, the classification activities focus on
classifying the reusable and recycled
components including plastic, cardboard, paper,
and metal for selling as scrap to individual
collectors.
According to World Bank (2018), 91% of
this waste is collected, and the remaining 9% of
DSW is discharged indiscriminately into the
environment. The amount of solid waste is
collected by two actors: one is URENCO, the
urban environment sanitation company in big
cities, or private waste collection companies that
collect 85% of the waste, while the remaining 6%
is collected by individual collectors (mainly
875
Domestic solid waste management following circular economy model
Waste generation (households,
commercial businesses, shops, and
streets) (100%)
Garbage collection
(URENCO, waste collection
company) (85%)
Private collection (garbage
collectors and scrap
merchandise) (6%)
Littering (9%)
Compost producing
Burning (9%)
Recycling
(Recycle village) (10%)
(4%)
Burying (63%)
Unsanitary landfills
sites (43%)
Sanitary landfills sites
(20%)
Figure 2. Typical traditional DSW management
Source: World Bank (2018).
collecting the recycled inorganic wastes like
plastic, paper, and metal).
The traditional model of DSW management
reveals some limitations. Firstly, economic
growth, population growth, and strong
urbanization result in a huge volumes of waste,
which is increasing rapidly every year, especially
in big cities (especially Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh
City). Secondly, the system of collecting, sorting,
and treating waste is complex and labor-
intensive, and the recycling market is occupied
by an informal group. Thirdly, inadequate legal
frameworks, and inadequate monitoring and
supervision are causing environmental problems
that increase people's health risks (commonly
due to the activities of informal groups in the
handicraft villages that can generate or handle
significant amounts of hazardous waste).
Fourthly, there is a lack of a "polluter must pay
principle" with very low collection and treatment
fees levied on households and other emission
units, and at least 80% of treatment costs are
subsidized by the government. Therefore, it is
necessary to renovate the DSW management
model to improve its effectiveness.
Waste transportation is carried out by
environmental companies using small garbage
trucks to transfer DSW to collection points or
transfer stations, and using specialized trucks to
deliver DSW to the landfills and other treatment
facilities. However, the hygiene of the collection
trucks and transfer stations are not good,
resulting in the effluent discharge of wastewater,
which attracts mosquitoes and flies, and has a
strong stench that negatively affects the people
living nearby. Especially, garbage trucks and
specialized trucks often operate during rush hour
in the afternoon, causing local traffic congestion
in many streets.
DSW after collection is mainly taken to
landfills (63%), and 28% (about 14,000 tons/day)
is taken to different treatment facilities (10% for
recycling, 4% for compost production, and 14%
for burning). Thus, theoretically, only 28% of the
treated DSW has the opportunity to return to re-
serve the production and living activities of
citizens. The remaining 63% is buried
wastefully. Moreover, 43% of this DSW is
buried in unhygienic landfills, with high risks of
environmental pollution.
Circular model of domestic solid waste
management
According to the proposed circulation
economic model, DSW, which emanates from
Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences
876
DSW generation
Consumption of treated
DSW, production of
recycled goods
Classification of DSW
at sources
Treatment for different
groups of classified
DSW
DSW collection
Transport of DSW to
planned collection
points
Figure 3. The circular domestic solid waste management model
generators through a process, becomes processed
basic criterion is to separate organic and
and recycled products to come back to serve
these entities (Figure 3). The objective of the
circular model of DSW management is to
minimize emissions to the environment by
building a closed cycle of waste.
inorganic components.
The organic content in DSW can account for
50-70% of the total of solid waste, and organic
waste is considered a source of raw materials for
the production of high-quality compost or
biogas. Therefore, focusing on waste
delimitation and classification in order to
collect a large volume of organic waste is
considered a low-cost strategy to reduce the
need for landfills while improving the
efficiency of recycling DSW.
Step 1: Identify generators
According to the circular economic model,
the first step is to identify and manage the source
of domestic solid waste. For each source, it is
necessary to promulgate mandatory regulations
and sanctions to require DSW generators to
classify waste into regulated groups at the source.
At the same time, properly identifying the
generators will help to ensure the implementation
of the principle of "polluters must pay", creating
financial sources for the implementation of DSW
collection and treatment activities in the future.
Next is the classification of inorganic waste
components. Inorganic waste containing
components such as plastic, paper, and metal
needs to be collected for recycling. The
remainder can become fuel but should be treated
first to reduce the proportion of inert materials
such as sand, gravel, and other non-combustible
materials to meet the requirements of burning
and co-burning to create energy for people’s
daily lives.
Step 2: Classify domestic solid waste at the
source
According to the World Bank (2018), there
are many criteria for classifying DSW, and the
application of such criteria depends on the
objectives and level of domestic solid waste
treatment in each country. However, the most
The effectiveness of waste classification at
the source has been reported in many countries.
In Germany, the Green Dot system was
introduced as a mandatory regulation on waste
877
Domestic solid waste management following circular economy model
classification at the source. The key point of this
system is that manufacturers and retailers have to
pay "Green Dot" fees for their products: the more
packaging a product has, the higher the fee.
Although Germany has 30 million tons of waste
every year, this system has helped to reduce the
components of paper, cardboard, glass, and
metal. The German media predicted that the
"Green Dot" system helps to reduce 1 million
tons of waste each year (Thanh Thao, 2018), so
they have to recycle less amounts of DSW.
although actual figures may be lower (Ministry
of Natural Resources and the Environment,
2020).
Primary collection is carried out by official
actors (employees of sanitation companies) and
informal actors (individual collectors). However,
individual collector activities do not have a
specific plan. They do not have personal
protective equipment, only collect certain types
of domestic waste, and create many unsecured
scrap gathering yards near residential areas. As
for the official collectors, they often collect all
types of DSW at the same time, as there is no
regulation and collection schedule for each type
of waste as classified.
In Japan, every type of waste you want to
throw must be put into separate bags by color.
For example, flammable waste will be put into
yellow bags and the green bags are for non-
burnable waste. If you do not comply with this
regulation, your garbage bag will be returned
with an "embarrassing ticket" to remind you to
sort your waste. More strict regulations can be
found in Korea, where not all garbage bags can
be disposed of everywhere. Types of garbage
bags are regulated depending on each region,
each country, and each city. If you bring the
garbage bags of the Gangnam area to Songpa-gu
to throw them away, you can be fined (JD, 2018).
Therefore, it is necessary to change both the
form and the method of collection. Accordingly,
it is essential to formalize the activities of
informal individual collectors through the
signing labor contracts with them while
simultaneously prohibiting separate collection
activities, and only allowing concentrated
collecting points to be in operation (in residential
areas, in supermarkets). At the same time, it is
necessary to arrange specific collection
schedules for each type of DSW which have been
classified from the source to ensure the
effectiveness of future treatments.
Therefore, in Vietnam, it is necessary to set
up a specific set of regulations on sorting waste
at the source, modes of containing the waste, and
a specific schedule for dumping garbage to
ensure efficient collection. At the same time,
there also needs to be a strict monitoring
mechanism and severe sanctions imposed to
prevent indiscriminate discharge into the
environment. Singapore is still known as the
cleanest country in the world thanks to its
extremely severe sanctions for indiscriminate
littering in public places.
Step 4: Transporting domestic solid waste
to the planned collection points
In this step, it is necessary to develop and
readjust the planning of transfer stations, landfill
sites, and treatment facilities to ensure that they
are far from residential areas and are designed to
comply with hygienic and safety conditions to
avoid causing congestion or unsafe situations for
surrounding residential areas. This requires the
strong participation of all levels of the
government and strict regulations on technical
equipment and facilities for these activities.
Step 3: Collecting domestic solid waste
Indeed, there are still two types of collection
forms in the world: primary collection (collecting
garbage from each household) and secondary
collection (transfer waste from collecting points
or transfer stations to treatment facilities).
However, the traditional management model of
domestic solid waste in Vietnam shows that both
forms of collection are not effective. According
to reported data, the waste collection rates are
about 85% in urban areas and 40% in rural areas,
Also, each different type of domestic solid
waste needs to be transported to different
collection points and treatment facilities, rather
than a mass and aggregation situation that makes
it difficult for later steps.
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878
Nguyen Thi Thu Quynh & Nguyen Quoc Hung (2020)
the waste treatment and recycling process are
accepted for consumption by actors in the
economy.
Step 5: Treatment of the classified
domestic solid waste
According to Article 19 in Degree No.
38/2018/ND-CP, a recycling activity is the
activity of treating DSW by various technologies
(Government, 2015), such as organic fertilizer
processing technology; combustion technology;
sanitary landfill technology; technology for
recycling, energy recovery, and producing
products from the useful composition of daily-
life solid waste; and other environmentally
friendly technologies.
The purpose of the circular economy model
is to minimize the amount of DSW disposed into
the environment, which can result in the
consequences of waste resources (for organic
solid waste) and, more seriously, causing
environmental pollution (for hazardous solid
wastes). However, there are still many people
who believe that garbage products are not clean
or hygienic for direct human consumption.
Therefore, it is necessary to propagate to change
the people's awareness about the recognition and
evaluation of products from recycled waste. This
will create a real market demand for processed
and recycled waste products such as organic
fertilizer, plastic resins, gas, and electricity, etc.
In addition, some economic incentives should be
presented to stimulate the demand for these
products such as discounted prices (compared to
higher adjusted prices of non-recyclable items),
and tax exemptions or tax reductions for
organizations and individuals. In Germany, the
government has published information and
requires supermarkets to provide more
environmentally friendly recycling bags, canvas
bags, and paper bags. If customers require plastic
bags, they must pay instead of the bags being
given for free as before.
Accordingly, the purpose of recycling is to
ensure that DSW after being treated and recycled
will become useful products that can serve the
daily lives and production activities of people.
Solid waste and solid waste treatment are big
issues in many countries around the world.
However, nowadays, many developed countries,
especially countries in Europe, are leading the
way in waste treatment solutions. To them, solid
waste is considered a valuable resource and a
business opportunity that not only brings
economic returns but also helps to protect the
environment.
Sweden has been a leader in recycling solid
waste for many years. Currently, the rate of
recycled DSW is up to 99%. This country even
has to import waste from other countries for
continuously operating its recycling plants which
have been creating much added value to their
economy.
In addition, other administrative measures
should also be considered by enhancing the
social responsibilities of individuals, businesses,
agencies, and units in consuming recycled
products to minimize environmental pollution. It
is essential that every stakeholder must
acknowledge that the consumption of these
products is their responsibility and obligation to
the community and to themselves.
Norway is also one of the world's leading
countries in recycling plastic waste. Evidence
shows that 97% of plastic bottles from this
country have been recycled, 92% of which return
to high-quality plastic and can continuously
contain drinking water. The life cycle of some
plastic bottles in Norway can be recycled up to
50 times. This makes the Nordic nation a model
for the whole world in the field of environmental
protection (Lan Huong, 2019).
After the consumption of processed and
recycled waste products takes place, a new
emission process appears. The circular model of
DSW not only results in economic effectiveness
but also social and environmental effectiveness.
Step 6: Consumption of treated domestic
solid waste and production of recycled goods
Innovating the state management of domestic
solid waste following the circular economy
model
The results of the series of improvements
listed above in the DSW management process
only make sense if the products generated from
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Domestic solid waste management following circular economy model
In order to develop and implement the model
of circular economy in domestic solid waste
management, it is necessary to innovate the state
management work in this field in advance.
Specifically, the following solutions need to be
studied and implemented synchronously to get
the highest effectiveness:
international practices) to ensure funding for
efficient collection and treatment activities
(World Bank, 2018). Regarding the expenditure
structure, it is necessary to pay more attention to
and to spend more on advanced and modern
treatment technologies to reduce the proportion
of expenses for small collection activities as at
present. Collection should be renewed in the
direction of reducing the frequent use of
manpower, with small, inefficient tools, to
using modern equipment, according to the
periodic plan.
Firstly, it is necessary to complete the
guidelines, policies, and regulations on the
classification, collection, and treatment of DSW
in the direction of improving the implementation
of compulsory social responsibility for each
citizen, each unit, and each enterprise in order to
protect themselves and the community towards
sustainable development.
Sixthly, it is necessary to improve the
propaganda activities on the need for good
management of DSW in people's lives, and the
responsibilities and rights of people in
participating in DSW management from
classifying, collecting, recycling, treating, and
consuming recycled waste products.
Secondly, it is necessary to clearly assign the
responsibilities of the ministries, agencies, and
localities in performing the state management
functions of domestic solid waste to avoid
overlapping,
unclear,
and
inconsistent
responsibilities which lead to low management
effectiveness. Especially, it is necessary to
enhance the role of the Environmental Police and
enhance the role of the community in inspecting
and supervising the implementation of
regulations and laws on DSW.
Conclusions
The current situation and forecast of
Vietnam's domestic solid waste by 2030 show
that authorities should spend more effort in
managing waste, otherwise they will cause
unpredictable consequences in terms of
economic, social, and environmental impacts,
which in turn can affect people's lives, hindering
the goal of sustainable development.
Thirdly, it is necessary to develop and adjust
the planning of collection sites, treatment
facilities, and recycling plants, so they are
concentrated, large scale, separate for each type
of DSW, and far from crowded residential areas.
This is the way to ensure the effectiveness of
investments and minimize the negative impacts
of these activities on people's living
environments.
Although the government and authorities
have recently put great effort into the
management of DSW, the implementation of the
state management of this field still revealed many
shortcomings. Therefore, in the coming years,
the research indicates that it is necessary to
innovate the state management of DSW
following the circular economic model from the
viewpoint of considering DSW as a renewable
resource. It is necessary to build up the primary
and secondary markets for domestic solid waste
in a closed cycle process with the participation of
many actors. Their activities should be
standardized to minimize the external emissions
that cause waste and environmental pollution in
Fourthly, it is necessary to innovate and
promote the attraction of public-private
partnerships in the field of solid waste collection
and treatment in order to avoid relying too much
on the current budget. It is essential to treat DSW
as a resource to be produced, processed,
recycled, and marketed.
Fifthly, it is necessary to renovate the
financial revenue - expenditures in the collection
and treatment of DSW. Accordingly, the
collection and treatment fee for DSW should be
raised to the highest acceptable threshold of
households (1-1.5% of income/year according to
order to achieve economic
-
social
-
environmental efficiency. To achieve this goal,
the state management of domestic solid waste
should implement some of the above-proposed
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880
Nguyen Thi Thu Quynh & Nguyen Quoc Hung (2020)
uc/Lists/News&ItemID=41630 on May 12, 2020.
solutions synchronously to achieve the highest
effectiveness and management efficiency.
Macarthur E. (2017). Ellen Macarthur Foundation.
Retrieved
from
economy/what-is-the-circular-economy on September
2, 2020.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment for
supporting and sharing the Status of National
Environment survey results to write this paper.
Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment (2011).
2011 National Environment Report. Hanoi: Natural
Resources and Maps Publisher (in Vietnamese).
Ministry of Natual Resources and the Environment (2017).
2017 National Environment Report on Waste
management. Hanoi: Vietnam Natural Resources and
Maps Publisher (in Vietnamese).
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